Gülperi Güngör (*) Infrastructure is described as the basic physical and organizational structures and facilities (e.g., buildings, roads, and power supplies) needed for the operation of a society or enterprise. (1) It includes both tangible, physical structures (hard infrastructure), such as railways, power plants, and water and waste management systems, as well as more abstract systems (soft infrastructure), such as governance, education, and finance. The Industrial Revol

Gülperi Güngör(*) When discussions about geography, infrastructure, foreign policy, and international development intersect, the concept of geopolitics quickly comes to the forefront. After the collapse of the Soviet Union, policymakers and scholars moved away from rigid ideological frameworks and revived 19th-century geopolitical thinking—most notably the classical ideas of Halford Mackinder. These geopolitical perspectives draw heavily on organic state theories and social D